Nicaragua became an independent state in 1838. Guerrilla forces, led by Gen. Sandino, opposed the US marine presence in the early 1930s.

• 1978 FSLN, formed in 1961, ends 44-year Somoza dictatorship; ensuing conflict between FSLN and Contras.
• 1984 Daniel Ortega, FSLN leader, elected president.
• 1990 End of civil war. Center-right National Opposition Union (UNO) unexpectedly wins elections.
• 1998 Hurricane Mitch causes havoc.
• 2002 Bolaños becomes president.

From "The Financial Times World Desk Reference" © Dorling Kindersley 2004